SPICES IN COOKING

Spices in cooking
The second most significant event that has happened to cooking (since the invention of cooking itself) is the use of spices (the first being the use of salt, the most important taste enhancer). Use of spices made cooking an art and dishes delicious. Parry (1969) writes, “for the western people the coming of the pungent and aromatic spices of the orient was the greatest boon to their cooking. New methods of preserving food quickly came into existence, dishes took on a fullness of flavour previously unknown; beverages glowed with a redolent tang, and life experienced a new sense of warmth and satisfaction”.

Spices have various effects when used in food; they impart flavour, pungency and colour, they also have anti-oxidant, anti-microbial, pharmaceutical and nutritional properties (Table 10). In addition to the above direct effects, use of spices can also lead to complex secondary effects such as salt reduction, sugar reduction, improvement of texture and prevention of food spoilage (Table 11, 12). The basic effects of spice when used in cooking fall into four categories: flavouring, pungency, colouring, and deodorizing; the last one may overlap with the other three. Each spice performs at least one of these functions. However the predominant and the most important function is flavouring, and this quality is dependent on the essential oil components in the spices, while the pungency and colouring characters depend on von-volatile components such as alkaloids, carotenoids etc. The predominant taste and flavour compounds present in some of the spices are given in Table 13.

Most spices do have more than one function when used in food. Often each spice has a major function and one or more sub-functions (Table 13). A typical example is red chilly, the basic function of this spice is to give pungency, and it also has the function of colouring. Use of spices is also influenced by the type of cooking, type of food (vegetarian, non-vegetarian, sea food, different types of meat etc), region and nation. Certain spices are almost exclusively used in certain regions. Parsley for example is used primarily in western cooking, celery particularly in Italian and French cooking, vanilla in Italian cooking, cardamom, cloves, turmeric, tamarind and asafoetida almost exclusively in Indian cooking etc. Most spices have regional preferences; perhaps black pepper is the only universally used spice in abundance by all regions and all groups.

Spices are also used for deodorizing or masking the smell of raw materials. The flavour of the spice does not itself come into play in this case as much as the ability of the spice to mask an undesirable odour. This deodorizing / masking action can occur in three different ways: Chemical (chemically changing or neutralizing the smell); physical (by absorption or adsorption of the smell giving compound); or sensational (where a strong spice smell covers or masks an unpleasant smell). The spices belonging to the family Labiatae (Lamiaceae) are very effective at deodorizing because they have both chemical and sensational deodorizing functions and enhance the deodorizing / masking effect very effectively (Table 14).

Some spices are used in food more for imparting an attractive colour than for enhancing taste (e.g. Paprika); while turmeric is used primarily for colour, but also imparts flavour to the dish. The colouring effect of spice can be manipulated by appropriate cooking method. The tone of the colour depends upon the nature of the colouring matter present, its cooking method etc. The major colour components of spices are given in Table 15.

Apart from their use in cooking; spices are also used in imparting flavour to alcoholic beverages (Table 16).

SPICES IN FOOD PRESERVATION

Spices play a dual function, taste/ flavour enhancement and for food preservation by preventing or delaying spoilage of food. Food deteriorates during storage for various reasons, one of which is the oxidation of oil or fat contained in it. Fats are known to react with oxygen in the air to generate peroxides, which are further oxidized and decomposed into low molecular weight alcohol and aldehydes, resulting in rancidity. Studies have shown that many spices have antioxidant properties that can prevent the formation of peroxides. The first patent approved in 1938 specified that spice oils such as clove oil could prevent the oxidation of cooking oils. Of the various spices, rosemary retarded rancidity the most, followed by sage, ginger, nutmeg, thyme, clove, mace and oregano. Black pepper was shown to have more antioxidant activity when used in mayonnaise or salad dressing than did rosemary (Table 17).

Spoilage of food is also due to the action of microbes such as bacteria and fungi. Many spices possess antimicrobial action (either bacteriostatic or fungistatic or both) and spices have been used from ancient times for food preservation. In ancient Greece and Rome, coriander was used to extend the preservation period of meat and mint was used to prevent milk from spoiling. Many spices have also been shown to possess antimicrobial activity (Table 18). Mustard, clove, cinnamon, rosemary, sage, and their essential oils possess remarkable bacteriostatic and fungistatic properties. These properties are found in the volatile oil components of the essential oils.

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND METABOLIC EFFECTS

Spices are nutritionally not important as they are used in very small quantities. One may then ask what exactly is then the effect of spices in the human body. Spices do have a variety of physiological effects and their presence in food is invaluable for more than one reasons. A quick glace through the literature will give us the following effects:

On digestion and absorption: Some pungent spices have an effect on the digestive function. These effects can be of three types: (i) promotion of chemical digestion by promoting secretion of digestive enzymes; (ii) promotion of physical digestion by promoting digestive tract movement, and (iii) promotion of speed of absorption by increasing blood circulation in the digestive tract. It is well known that saliva is increased by the intake of spices, especially the pungent spices. The amount of saliva normally secreted per day is 1-1.5 litres. This secretion is promoted considerably by spices, and the non-volatile component of the spice (Hirasa and Takimasa, 1998). The peristaltic movement of the esophagus aids digestion in the stomach, and this movement is under the control of the vagus nerve and the sympathetic nerves. Some spices, especially chilly, have an effect on the movement of the digestive tract. Capsaicin in the chillies affects the nerves of the small intestine, releasing substance P. This is a neurotransmitter, affects the muscles and the cholinergic nerves directly, leading to the secretion of acetylcholine, which in turn affect the vagus nerve. Besides capsaicin, both piperine and zingiberine have similar effect on the vagus nerve.

Efffect on circulatory system: The blood flow in the blood vessels is regulated by the blood vessel muscle, and is under the control of the vasoconstrictor nerve, a sympathetic nerve. Spices do not affect the sympathetic nerves of the heart under normal intake concentration; but such quantity of compounds increase or decrease the blood pressure of peripheral blood vessels resulting in a change in the amount of blood flow. Norepinephrine secretion also occurs when capsaicin, piperine and zingiberine were infused. It is believed that the rise in temperature of the body surface caused by the intake of some spices is due to transfer of body heat from inside the body to the body surface by the increase of the amount of blood flow.

Metabolic regulation: Metabolism is generally classified as catabolism and anabolism. Spices affect anabolism and many spices and their components promote the anabolic process. The pungent spices are involved in the catabolic process also. It is known that pungent spices increase the activity of the sympathetic nerve, which results in the activation of catabolic channels such:
Sympathetic nerve adrenal gland secretion of adrenaline
Sympathetic nerve brown adipose tissue secretion of adrenaline

This process would promote catabolic events, including lipid metabolism, energy metabolism, and generation of body heat etc. Pungent compounds in pungent spices have an effect on the metabolic regulation as well as absorption and digestion. The mechanism of thermogenesis is characterized by acting on the metabolism of a living body through an autonomic ganglion and endocrine system (Hirasa and Takemasa, 1998).

Much studies have gone into the physiological action of ginger in biological systems.’ Gingerols are found to be potent inhibitors of prostaglandin biosynthesis, and show potent ionotropic effect on isolated atria of guinea pigs. Shogaol in goal is known to inhibit cyclooxygenase avtivity. (For a detailed discussion on this topic refer Kimura et al., 2005; Remadevi et al., 2005). The biological actions of the spice componentrs are dealt with in the following section on spices as bioceuticals. .

WEIGHT CONTROL EFFECTS

Several studies indicated the dietary effect of spices, especially the pungent spices. Appropriate intake of pungent spices may help in weight control. When a small amount of a pungent spice is ingested, energy consumption is increased due to thermogenesis. When capsaicin from chillies is mixed with the feed given to rats, their weight tends to decrease even though they eat much more than they do of the normal feed containing no capsaicin. (Hirasa and Takemasa, 1998). Kwada (1986) assumed that the induction of thermogenesis by pungent spices would influence energy metabolism resulting in a decline in the accumulation of somatic lipid. Henry and Emery (1986) found that addition of pungent spice to a breakfast item increases the metabolic rate by 25%. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) has an effect on diet-induced thermogenesis and it is known that functional abnormalities of BAT often cause obesity in animals. The studies of Yoshida et al. (1988) indicated that pungent compounds and food spiced with pungent spices activated the BAT function and hence could be useful in mitigating obesity.

Capsaicin and its homologues are absorbed easily in the body and dissolve in blood immediately. These compounds affect the adrenal gland through the central nervous system to promote the secretion of epinephrine. Glycogen from the liver is broken down and the level of sugar in the blood rises. This sugar serves as an energy source, after which lipid is consumed rather than sugar. When energy metabolism shifts from sugar to lipid, both the level of sugar in the blood, and the amount of free fatty acids are high, and the secretion of insulin is depressed due to the secretion of adrenaline. This metabolic process is ideal for endurance sports (Hirasa and Takemasa, 1998). Kim et al. (1995) studied the impact of pungent chillies on endurance using a rat model and concluded that this spice has a significant effect on endurance increase and in lowering weight gain. Chillies thus are capable of mitigating obesity.

The allicin and diallylsulfide present in garlic is known to increase appetite, suppress the growth of microbes in the intestine, and promote blood circulation. Allicin is also known to suppress aneurinase, an enzyme that decomposes vitamin B1. The sulfur containing spices do influence the metabolism by lowering the level of sugar in the blood, lowering the level of cholesterol, dissolving thrombin, hindering platelet aggregation, preventing hyperplasia, preventing arthritis, and promoting diuresis.

Other spices such as nutmeg, sage, oregano etc. are also having properties that influence the metabolism in mammals and humans.

Spices as Bioceuticals: Phytomolecular pharmacology
Plants are used as medicines because the chemical compounds present in them exerts one or more or manifold influence on the physiological and metabolic functioning of the consumers. The primary constituents of plants (carbobydrate, proteins, lipids) have nutritive properties, while the secondary metabolites (such as alkaloids, terpenoids etc) exert physiological influences. The ultimate use of a spice as a medicinal plant depends on this ifluence and to the extent of the effect exerted by one or a group of compounds present in that spice. A large number of compounds are present in each spice, and each of such compounds may or may not influence the physiology of the consumer. However very often these compounds may not be present in sufficient concentration to exert any notable effect, especially in the quantities they are commonly used in food. In pure form these compounds can exert significant influence on the physiological and metabolical functioning. Table 17 lists some of the more commonly occurring compounds in spices and their known pharmacological and physiological properties. Phytomolecular pharmacology is gaining more and more importance with the spread of neutraceuticals as a means of safe health care. In the context of the ‘return to nature’ movement that is gathering momentum in the present day world, this area of phytomolecular pharmacology becomes very important.

SPICES IN BEAUTY CARE

The importance of spices in cosmetics and perfumery as well as in beauty and body care are well known from ancient days. The cosmetics and perfumery industry are employing the oils of many spices including allspice, caraway, cinnamon, cassia, cloves, nutmeg, mace, rosemary, cardamom etc. for blending with other volatile and fixed oils to make alluring perfumes. The toiletries and allied industries also make use of spices and their fragrant oils for the manufacture of soaps, toothpastes, talcum powder, after-shave lotion, freshness sachets, toilet waters, powders, promenades, and hair oils.

Indian women have always realized the value of certain herbs as natural beauty care agents. Some of the more important spices used in beauty care is listed below:

Basil: A tablespoon of basil juice plus the same amount of honey taken in mornings daily would do wonders to skin complexion. Tea made of basil leaves with milk and sugar builds resistance to fever symptoms.
Fenugreek: Application of a paste of fenugreek powder in water on the face and washing it off after 30 minutes can keep wrinkles away.
Coriander: Coriander is a skin tonic. Face packs of coriander seed, nutmeg, cloves, honey, lemon peel and rose water is a good skin tonic and removes acne.
Cinnamon: Application of cinnamon with clove and pepper will remove most skin blemishes.
Turmeric: This bright yellow spice has a cooling and soothing effect on the skin. Application of turmeric paste on face and body improves the colour of the skin. Applying the paste made out of turmeric and henna on palms and feet in decorative manner by the women folk is prevalent in most parts of India. For the Indian tribal and rural flok, turmeric is the most important beauty aid. Turmeric is used to beautify a bride on her wedding day, a paste of turmeric and sandal wood powder in oil is applied on her body before bath. Turmeric paste has a depilatory and deodorant action. Applied to the face regularly keeps acne at bay. The raw rhizome juice is used against parasitic skin infection like ringworm and scabies. Turmeric is the main ingredient for the manufacture of many cosmetic creams, antiseptic, anti-tanning and has got healing powers, good for skin pigmentation, makes skin transparent, glowing, maintains the pH factor, tightens the breast muscles, protects the skin from allergy and possesses the property of purifying the blood. Turmeric combined with sandal wood paste, saffron and a little oil was the magic face pack used by beauties of yester years to impart a golden glow to face. A face pack of turmeric, mixed with one-teaspoon honey and one spoon of ground almond and half a teaspoon of brewer’s yeast and rinsing it off with lukewarm water after 15 minutes is very useful for improving skin complexion.
Saffron is another important spice, which has been used from ancient times to improve the skin colour and complexion. Pregnant women take saffron in milk to improve the complexion of the newborn babies. Kashmiri women use a paste made of saffron flowers in rose water to improve complexion.
Pepper is also useful in beauty care, helpful in curing acne, good for haggard and sallow skin, activates blood circulation, stimulates follicles. It is an astringent, tightner and toner.